Routes of Migration: A Multifaceted Evidences from India

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________ This article examines the trend and patterns of migration in India. Internal and international migration occurs in search of survival, fulfilment, and a better life. Over the last few decades, major driving forces for urbanisation all over the world and is of concern in Asia due to the raising magnitude. Hence, Due to urbanization and globalization generate enormous opportunities for employment and livelihood for people in the country. The large numbers of people moving internal migration as well as international migration in the different part of the countryside. Thus, the article discussed some of the important theoretical underpinnings of the issue of migration as reflected from India. However, this paper would orient towards the protection of labour rights and promote safe and secure working environments of the migrant workers, which will be a key to achieving the agenda of Sustainable Development Goal (SDGs) 2030.


Introduction
The significant concept of migration is that human civilization has always been accompanied by migration. It is the geographic movement of people across a specified boundary to establish a new permanent or semi-permanent residence. The word migration is derived from the Latin word "Migrare" which describes the change of one's residence. Particularly it means shifting of an individual from one cultural area or place of habitation to another location as more or less permanently (International Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, 1986). Similarly, the term "in migration" and "outmigration" is used for movement between areas within a country (internal migration). The terms "emigration" and "immigration" are used is mainly for movement between the countries (international migration) (Das & Saha, 1993, pp. 1-27). United Nations illustrates that the "Migration is one of the forms of geographical mobility between one place to another place and it also usually absorbs changes of existing living place from the origin to the place of working place or destination" (Clarke, 1965). Chakravarti (2001) argued that human migration is a universal characteristic, it is a process through which people move from a permanent place of residence to a new residence for a substantial period (Chakravarti, 2001(Chakravarti, , pp. 1454(Chakravarti, -1457. The migration can be classified based on its direction and duration. The direction of migration maybe urban areas to urban areas, urban areas to rural areas, rural areas to urban areas, and rural areas to rural areas. Migration rotations are from a few days to a few months, hardly three to six months in a year. The migration mainly depends on the distance from an origin place to the destination. It may occur once a year or several times within a year. Majorly in the migration activities involved adult members from the household and while a few involved parents with their children (Singh & Aggarwal, 1998).

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Migration is one of the essential processes of human history. This is the significant human movement from one place to another. The process of urbanization and globalization had generated ample opportunities, such as communication and transportation facilities in the developing world during the past several decades. This has further given momentum to migration. Migration within a country is very high. A longer fraction of the population is migrating within a country. The global estimate also presented that the number of internal migration is four times larger than that the international migration (Human Development Report, 2009, p. 21).
Before the arrival of the British in India, the migration of people from one part to another was very limited. It was because of the significant reasons, such as people engaged in agro-based rural socioeconomical activities by which they were satisfied and fulfilled the needs sufficient within their boundaries. Secondly, lack of transport and communication facilities made them stay in their villages. But due to the developmental changes brought up by the Britishers in production and economic systems, such as the starting of railways and improving communication and other transportation facilities pushed them to migrate internally as well as at the international level (Eaton, 1984). People often started to migrate from village to village, individual to group and agricultural to industrial operations.
The famine during the 1850s and suppression of the Indian uprising of 1857 added to one such largescale movement of people. People had migrated to the British, Dutch and French colonies to work on sugar plantations and subsequently, for tea and rubber plantations in Southeast Asia (Tinker, 1974). Later on, forest enclosures and population growth enhanced the number of migrants. At the same time, demand for labour increased with the growth of tea, coffee and rubber plantations, coal mines, and the development of industries in the country (Krishan, 2002). The migration of nearly one million peasants from overcrowded lands in the east of Bengal to Assam took place during the first three decades of the 20th century. The eastern districts of Uttar Pradesh, eastern Madhya Pradesh, and west Bihar were the out-migrants producing areas in India, and it was the region from which a significant proportion of Calcutta's population was resourced during the 19th and 20th centuries (Chattopadhya, 1987). At the beginning of the 20th century, the trend of rural to rural migration was decreased, and rural to urban migration was increased. It was associated with the pressures of population growth, fragmentation and subdivision of land and the expansion of employment opportunities in urban places (Bose, 1993). Micro studies on migration in India suggested that push factor-like inequality, poverty, agricultural backwardness and land ownership as being mainly responsible for migration (Srivastava, 1998). Migration through a part of active livelihood strategies also determined by the social context, norm and structure, gender ideology, caste structure which determine who migrates and who can profile from opportunities arising elsewhere (Bora, 1996). Hence, poverty push, prosperity push and prosperity pull type of migratory movements are evident in various regions of the country. In the different migration streams particularly rural to urban migration stream is dominant (Chand, 2005).

Methodology
For this portion of the analysis, data from the National sample survey organization, all the rounds and census data from the government of India. The paper is conceptualized based on using some of the basic concepts on migration and flows of migration at the internal as well as international level. The paper examines the concepts of migration, issues, trends and progression of migration in Indian society. And it is also conceptualized based on characteristics such as theoretical argument, historical perspective, the dimension of migration and pattern of migration from the internal and international level. The analysis has been presented on rural-urban areas as per the male and female migrants. The data carried out from NSSO rounds and Migrants involved in the work sectors/industries. The theoretical argument or information is represented by previous studies and arguments with the researcher/author's point of view. This paper is divided into nine sections, the first section gives a brief introduction and concept of migration. The second section emphasis on data and methodological description of the study. The third section elaborates on theoretical arguments on migration. The fourth section discusses the historical www.msocialwork.com perspectives on migration. The fifth section elaborates on the dimension of migration. The sixth section focused on migration and employment conditions in India. The seventh section elaborates on the current trend and pattern of migration. The eighth section discusses the process of international migration, and the last part discusses the conclusion.

Theoretical Arguments on Migration
The first model was brought out by Ravenstein (1885Ravenstein ( , 1889 which explained the process of migration. His "Laws of migration" describes, that migrants are mainly migrating from low opportunity areas to high opportunity areas. He also stated that every stream of migration produces in particular 'rural to urban' migration. He also suggested that the selection of working place or destination is measured based on distance, where the workers in nearby places start to migrate. Many other scholars also accepted the critical fact that distance is the significant determinant of migration. Some of the different theories looked at migration in terms of opportunities. Stouffer (1940) put forward his model of "intervening opportunity". In his work, he argued that distance is the most important cause of migration. Accordingly, workers decide the number of chances of migration at the place of destination (Sekher, 1997). Currently, modern developing urban areas receiving high migration of labourers. Neoclassical migration theory by Lewis model explained about theoretical work on rural to urban migration. This model tries to describe the transition from a stagnating economy based on a traditional rural sector to a growing economy focussed on the development of a modern urban area. In this model, economic growth does not the only outcome of the accumulation of capital in the modern industry but also from the relationship between the rural and urban sectors. Lewis assumes that rural economies primarily present a specific context in which there is surplus labour in the agriculture sector. Marginal productivity is close to zero in this sector. Particularly workers in the rural sector are assumed to share the output amongst them so that they are paid at their mean product. Thus, the agricultural sector can supply a labour force to the modern industrial sector, which can grow by accumulating capital and paying wages just equal to the mean product in the agricultural sector. The movement of the labour forces between the two economic sectors involves the reallocation of the labour force across space through migration from a low population density of rural to a high population density of urban areas. According to this model, migration continues until surplus labour or 'disguised unemployment' is fully absorbed by the modern sector (Lewis W. , 1954).
The Push and Pull Factor Model by Lee (1966) introduced to the push and pull factors of migration on an individual level. This model focuses on both supply and demand side of the migration process. Initially, he tried to revise Ravenstein's 19th-century laws on migration and based on that, presented a new framework on migration. According to lee's opinions, the determination of migration is followed by the areas of native or origin place and with the areas of working or destination place. It is called intervening obstacles or difficulties (such as distance, physical barriers, etc.) and personal factors during the migration. He also argued that migration takes place based on the particular stream at the place of birth to a specific destination. This is not only because of excellent opportunities but also greatly influenced by the availability of facilities at the destination. This model focuses on concerning the individual characteristics of the migrants. The people have difficulties to cope with the intervening obstacle. This push and pull framework model is an individual choice. It assumed that there are various demographic, social and economic and also environmental factors determining the migration process. The push and pull model mainly observed distinguished factors, for example, the population growth in rural areas is affecting the agricultural resources so due to which it pushes people from rural to urban areas. Similarly, adverse economic condition or high wage rate leads to pulling out people from rural to the urban sector (Skeldon, 1997).
The rural to urban migration model was given by Todaro, 1969 andHarris &Todaro, 1970. This model focuses on significant urban unemployment. This model is mostly applicable to developing and developed countries. Migration is not completely an intention to get a job in the city and involves risk. The rural-urban migration occurs, when expected real income differences between two streams are www.msocialwork.com highly positive. Expected income functions as inflexible. The Institutions determine urban wages and employment. The author pointed out that it can be perfectly rational to migrate, despite urban unemployment, due to a positive expected income differential. This model precise predictions and while the significance of income differentials is unquestionable in the labour migration decision. It is probably not as excessive as Harris and Todaro describe it. The model assumes that equilibrium will take place, which we do not find in the real world and some of the other empirical predictions also rise on this modal, e.g. wage equalization; have also not been found (Samal, 2008).
The Dual Labour Market Theory explains, there is economic dualism in the labour market, and wages also reflect status and prestige. The primary sector (Skilled workers) provides well-paid jobs and the secondary sector (unskilled workers) are paying low wages. The demand for migrant labours force streams from several factors. Due to structural inflation, there are steady wage rises in the primary sectors. In the secondary sectors, propositional wage rises (Piore, 1979).
Consequently, lower-wage make the secondary sectors unattractive to local workers. Thus, the migrants are highly motivated to work in these low-status jobs because they do not consider themselves as a part of destination society. In the secondary sector, employment changes according to the economic cycle and makes it unbalanced and ensure work. Traditional sources of labour in the secondary sector, teenagers and women have not exited anymore due to demographic alter. The women have joined the regular labour forces, and there are smaller teenage cohorts. Therefore, there is a strong demand for temporary migrant labour and that acts as a pull factor of migration (Piore, 1979). he Marxist point of view, tries to explain how migration is exploitative. Marxist theories suggest that migrants are exploited in both a direct and indirect manner. The wages are much lower than the market rate there is an extraction of overtime and in terms of the contract resembles those in bonded labour relationships. Also, intermediaries are found to use traditional caste-based and patriarchal modes of oppression to maintain exploitative labour relations (Olsen, 1996).

Migration in India: A Historical Perspective
Historical point of view, migration is closely associated with the evolution of the social organization, culture, and colonization of new fragments and in search of food, pilgrimage and trade, and invasion. Hence, in the recent continent, migration is one of the weapons for the process of urbanization and industrialization. India has an extensive history of migration into the subcontinent, since time immemorial. In the pre-colonial period, the most prominent reason for the movement of the population was due to tread and religious purpose. Buddhism and Islam were the main religious groups in the world. This is one of the initial spread over the trade roots and human mobility. The human being also moves towards because of the pastures of their cattle. These kinds of practices are still found in some of the northern and central states in India (Bhagat R. B., 2016).
Even during the ancient period in India, it was found in the most vibrant urban-centric areas had found. In 300 BC, it was estimated that Patalipu'tra city had 27000 people, 40000 people are in each Vaishali and Kaushambi, and Mathura had 60 thousand population. Hence, such a large population was not possible without having rural to urban migration (Sharma, 2005;Olsen, 1996). In India, after the death of Akbar, Agra was most probably is one of the most prominent and cities in the world. The movement of the population had various reasons, but several populations migrated due to military and tread purpose. During the British period, the old feudal order was broken and also in the 18 th century saw high manufacturing as well as agricultural production country. Significantly, Indian handlooms spread all over the market of Asia and Europe. Machines for production were used in the mills of Lancashire and Manchester in Britain. Due to which the Indian goods were restricted to the Indian market which caused many weavers and artisans into unemployed. India was de-industrialized between the periods of 1757 to 1857. As consequence of this, a considerable number of people of the artisan class and their families migrated to different parts of the country and places. Thus, India, during the second half of the eighteenth century to the first half nineteenth era, has experienced 'urban to rural' migration and at the same time, European countries highly experienced rural to urban migration. As an effect, the towns and cities get a weaker and economical background. People become more dependent on agricultural activities. The economic difficulties are the main reason for people to engage in migration activity in the late eighteen and early nineteen periods (Bhagat R. B., 2016).

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After the great mutiny of 1857, the British government has taken direct charges on India. he post-1957, saw growth in plantations such as cotton, tea, rubber jute, and indigo. Meanwhile, mining and quarries, now it was an essential factor for internal migration. The plantation mainly emerged in Assam, North-East India and the southern part, Travancore and Mysore became the most significant plantation areas. These plantations were dependent on migrants. The nature of migration was based on a five-year agreement by the contract persons.
After several decades cities came to exist like Bombay, Calcutta, Bangalore, and Madras. These cities were not famous in the medieval and ancient period but greatly influenced the circulation of migration. In the present scenario, migration has drastically increased after globalization.

Dimensions of Migration
There are generally four types of migration stream such as rural areas to urban-centric, urban areas to urban areas, rural areas to rural areas and urban areas to rural areas. These kinds of migration patterns exist all over the world and also occur even within the country. But these kinds of migration is based on resources, wealth, and also the availability of individual requirements in all segments.

Rural to Rural Migration:
In underdeveloped countries, rural to rural migration is common. Workers are migrating from poor regions to vibrant agricultural places, often which gives more work availability and are wealthy. According to NSSO data, In India, rural to rural migration roughly was considered 62 percent during the year 1999-2000. Workers from backward states such as Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, commonly move towards the developed green revolution states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Panjab during the harvest season. Similarly, in Nepal rural poor from mountain areas, migrate to prosperous alagricultural areas is nearby villages. However, rural-urban migration usually occurs in the more impoverished group with a low level of education and lack of assets for generating income. Even in India, various laws existed to protect the migrant workers, but those laws were not adequately functioning and were also poorly implemented in a grass root level (Deshingkar & Grimm, 2005).

Rural Areas to Urban Migration:
This type of migration is rapidly increasing in all over the world, especially as a result of urbanization. The major reason is the rural-urban wage differential. Similarly, the fastest-growing urbanised and industrialized areas rapidly attached labours from rural areas. This type of migration occurred over a long distance to the larger cities and mostly in the manufacturing centers of the cities. But there was also the smaller level of movement typically undertaken by the poor rural people migrating to smaller cities or towns to get into non-farm activates. For example, the rural workers are migrated temporarily or on a seasonal basis for work in a construction and as casual labour, etc. These workers move from rural to urban areas with the intention of the betterment of life (Deshingkar & Grimm, 2005).
Urban Areas to Rural Migration: People move from urban areas to rural areas with the hope of settling in and work in rural areas. This type of migration usually occurs when people retire from his or her job and move back to their place. This could occur when people are getting old, they typically come to the village areas. In India, urban to rural migration can be found very.
Urban Areas to Urban Migration: People move from urban-centric to another urban area intending to settle or work as a temporary or permanent labours. Urban to urban migration are predominant factors in India. This kind of migration occurs, when a person is migrating due to higher education or mostly due to lack of availability of professional and technical education in the particular urban centre. Due to ample opportunities and higher education motive people move to metropolitan and big cities (Deshingkar & Grimm, 2005). In the Indian context, migration streams are derived from rural to rural, rural to urban, urban to rural and urban to urban. The data given by NSSO and census expounded below: www.msocialwork.com   Similarly, female migration is one of the crucial aspects in the present era. In the year 1999-2000 out of the total, 70.0 percent of them migrated from rural to urban areas, and only 14.4 percent of them migrated from rural to rural areas. The 2001 census shows 72.4 percent of the female migration is from rural to urban areas, and 13.5 percent of them migrated from rural to urban areas. The recent NSSO 64 th round data shows that on average 70 percent of them migrated from rural to urban areas, and 14.8 percent of them migrated from rural to rural areas. The high propensity of female migration is due to marriage and employment purposes in urban areas.

Migration and Employment Condition in India
The Census of India 2011 statistics show that a large proportion of migration of the workers is within the district and to other districts in the state. About ¼ of the total migration to the other state. A huge proportion of migration occurs in urban areas due to the availability of employment opportunities. Similarly, international migration constitutes around 2.6 percent of the total migration. As per the International Labour Organisation (2018) constitute, over 30 million Indians migrate to foreign countries. About 9 million of the Indian migrants concentrated in the GCC region (known as the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf). Over 90 percent of the Indian migrant labourers, most of them are low and semi-skilled labourers. The contribution of migrant labourers, both semiskilled and unskilled has led to India fetching the top receiving of remittances in the world, with over US$62.7 billion in 2016 (ILO, 2018).
In India, internal migration is one of the crucial parts of the economy, the economic survey 2016-17 estimated that 100 million internal migrants are involved in small skilled and semi-skilled work segments. This sector contributes 10 percent of Indian economic ( Khanna, 2020) output and plays an essential role in developing the nation. Most of the migrants migrate from the poorest state called Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Odessa to work in the industrial centers of the states or developed cities.
According to the Census 2011, about 64.96 million migrant labourers were involved in different work segment, excluding cultivators and agriculture labourers. The data analyses that the non-agriculture migrant labourers according to the occupational category have found a large proportion of them are engaged in craft and related treads.

Current Trend and Pattern of Migration
In India, trends and patterns of migration are assessed through the official data from the census of India. The first census started during the colonial period in 1872, with the question of migration. The data collected based on place of birth, which was continued in all the successive censuses till 1971, which considered the question on a place of last residence. The migration data was observed based on place of birth and place of last residences from the various rounds of NSS (National Sample Survey). The information of the previous residence captures the size of migrants; who may be either permanent or semi-permanent migrants. On the other hand, the NSSO survey even collected data on temporary and seasonal migration.
The historical studies related to migration in India is based on census data that shows the most of the Indians are living outside the country and during 1931, there was 3.6 percent compared to 22.4 percent in the United States. This statement concluded that most of the peasants in the Indian population a relatively immobile. It is mainly due to the prevalence of traditional values, diversity, and cultures. This was also due to internal factors, such as the caste system and joint families. In some of the rural areas, lack of education and predominance of agriculture leads to migration (Devis, 1951).
Urbanization is a significant factor for migration. The migration rate increases or decreases depending on urbanization. Indian migration structure occurs not only due to only economic reasons but also the multitude of socio-culture aspects as well. The census 2001 provides the data that a total of 309 million internal migrants' migrated based on place of the last residence. It represents nearly 30 percent of the total population. Even though the number or rate of internal migrants was significantly increased and NSSO 64 th round  showed that migration rates were 28.5 percent. There was a slight decrease in the migration rate as compared to the 2001 census (Bhagat R. B., 2016). In most of the developing courtiers, a significant part of the economy is from the informal sector or unorganized sector. Employment in the unorganized labour market is playing the primary role in improving economic growth. The National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAE) estimates that the informal sector generates about 62 percent of GDP. The informal economy has provided about 55 percent of employment. Moreover, the urban area attracts a substantial migrant population from both rural areas to urban areas to engage in a better life (Solanki & Zankharia, 2014).
Reginal Pattern of Migration: It can be observed from the map below that the inter-state net migration rate is positive in respect of the developed states like Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Haryana and Punjab indicating a large inflow of people to these states. The rapid industrialization process and the availability of employment opportunities in these states are the most important reasons for such type of a trend in these states. On the contrary states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan and North-eastern states supply a large number of migrants to some of the economically better off states like Maharashtra, Gujarat, Punjab and Delhi.

Process of International Migration from India
International migration from India has existed for 200 years a high rate during the colonial rule. It was started in 1834 when the British Empire abolished the slavery system. However, labour was to work in a sugar plantation in the different British settlements. Without having a dependable supply of labour, plantation work could not be possible. In India, labour has been found in various colonies. Workers were usually slaves and offender prisoners were employed in the construction of public roads, harbours, office buildings. Over the period, Indian workers emigrate to some of the developed countries such as Dubai, Malaysia, and Ceylon. During 1836 and 1937, approximately 30 million Indians had emigrated to a different part of the world. Similarly, at the same time, 24 million people returned to the home place. As a result, an exact total of six million people emigrates in 1834 to1999. So, annually, there are 2, 02,000 persons are migrating (Jain, 2011).
The international migration was vibrant and rapidly up-warding during the globalization. A report by Global Commission on International Migration estimates that total figures of international migration are increased from 82 million to 200 million during 1970-2005. It drastically doubled within 35 years. The Global Commission on International Migration Report (GCIMR) says that the share of immigrants in the total population was highest in Australia (18.7 percent) followed by Western Europe (7.7 percent), North America (12.9 percent), Africa (2 percent), Asia (1.4 percent) and Latin America (1.1 percent). The report also pointed out that the major global markets for migrants were in the USA (20 percent) followed by the Russian Federation (13.3 percent) and Germany (7.3 percent) (Mohanty, 2006).
Currently, migration from India was around 9 million, which most of the population concentrated in the GCC region (Gulf Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf). Completely 90 percent of the Indian migrant workers are engaged as low and semi-skilled workers, work in the Gulf region and South-East Asia (Wadhawan, 2018). The data demonstrations on labour migration by gender on a global labour market. This has shed some light on the magnitude of labour migration of male and female group. According to data from the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) 2015, the Indian migrant population in GCC countries increased from just under 2 million in 1990 to 8.2 million in 2015, with growth prominent among both male and female migrants in all countries. Particularly, women encompass just less than one-fourth (23.9 percent) of the total Indian migrant stock in 2015. The male and female proportion in the total Indian migrant has increased during the past two decades. Qatar, where the number of women migrants has increased yet their proportion is much lower when compared to their male counterparts. Hence, a large proportion of Indian migrants prefer to migrate to Gulf countries.

Conclusion and Policy Concern
A large number of migrants move internally and across international borders. Such migration impacts not only the lives of migrants but also the development and growth of the sending and receiving areas. Both internal and international migrants differ in characteristics among themselves and between the two categories, but there are also significant overlaps between the two streams of migration. The drives of both internal and international migration are similar. Migration is a significant part of the livelihood and employment strategies of individuals. Both internal and international migrants, who are at the lower end of the labour market, lack social security at the labour market at the place of destination. They suffer from various kinds of vulnerability and deprivation. But migration has a positive impact on poverty, employment and economic growth. Many policies have been formulated to control the migration activity and protection of the migrant labourers.